KOLLONTAY (nee Domontovich) Alexandra Mikhailovna (1872, St Petersburg - 1952), Soviet party worker, diplomat, writer. In 1888, she passed all school examinations without having attended classes. In the 1890s, she worked toward the enlightenment of Petersburg workers, collaborated with the Petersburg journals Obrazovanie, Nauchnoe Obozrenie and others, and attended political meetings at the Stasov apartment (20 Furshtatskaya Street). She took part in the events of 9 January 1905 (see Bloody Sunday). She worked for the creation of the Mutual-Aid Society for Women-Workers (1907), and the holding of the First All-Russian Women's Congress in St Petersburg (1908). From December 1908, she lived abroad. In March 1917, she returned to Petersburg, became a member of the Executive Committee of the Petrograd City Soviet; during the July 1917 incidents she was arrested, but released shortly afterwards. At the Sixth Congress of Russian Social-Democratic Workers' Bolshevik Party, she was elected to be a member of the Executive Committee in absentia. In 1917-18, she was the Peoples' Commissar for State Charity (social security), and a prominent figure in the Women's Movement. From March 1918, she lived in Moscow. In 1920-22, she was Chief of the Women's Department of the Central Committee of the Russian Communist Bolshevik Party. Kollontay was the first woman in the world to be a diplomat; from 1923, she was Ambassador and Trade Representative to Norway; in 1926, to Mexico; from 1927-30, to Norway again; from 1930-45 Envoy, then Ambassador to Sweden. In 1944, she conducted armistice negotiations with Finland. In 1945 she became Advisor to the Ministry for Foreign Affairs of the USSR. She wrote works on labour and the women's movement. In 1972, a street on the right bank of the Neva River was named after Kollontay.

References: Иткина А. М., Революционер, трибун, дипломат: Страницы жизни А. М. Коллонтай. Изд. 2-е, доп. М., 1970; Олесин М. И. Первая в мире: Биогр. очерк об А. М. Коллонтай. М., 1990.

Y. N. Kruzhnov.

KORNILOV Lavr Georgievich (1870-1918), military commander, Infantry General (1917). Graduated from the Infantry Academy (1890), and the General Staff Academy (1896). Participated in military geographical expeditions in Pamir (1890s), in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05. In 1907-11 served as military attache in China. At the beginning of WW I of 1914-18 was in command of the 48th Infantry division, in 1915 was taken prisoner, escaped; in 1916 led the 25th Army Corps. Following the February Revolution 1917 received command of the Petrograd Military District, the 8th Army, and the South-Western Front, on 6 July 1917 was appointed the Commander-in-Chief. Disillusioned with the activity of the Provisional Government, undertook an attempt to establish a military dictatorship aiming to save the country from the chaos that gripped the nation: on 25 August 1917 he called for resignation of the Provisional Government and advanced the 3rd Cavalry Corps of General A.M. Krymov on Petrograd. On August 27 Prime Minister A.F. Kerensky declared Kornilov a mutineer. On August 31 Kornilov was arrested. In October he escaped, and in early 1918 became the founder of the White Movement, formed the Volunteer Army in Rostov-on-Don, and led the army through tough fighting to Cuban. Killed by a shell at Ekaterinodar.

G. V. Kalashnikov.

KUCHUMOV Anatoly Mikhailovich (1912-1993, town of Pushkin), museum worker, art historian, honoured culture worker of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (1975), honorary citizen of the town of Pavlovsk (1992). In 1930-32, attended the factory school of Okhta Chemical Plant, concurrently attending courses in the Hermitage. In 1932, worked as a cataloguer of the Palace Museum of Pavlovsk; since 1937, headed Alexandrovsky Palace Museum in Pushkin. In 1941, Kochumov took charge of Pushkin museum collections evacuation to Gorky, then to Novosibirsk. In 1944, he returned to Leningrad, and took part in setting up the Central Depository of Museum Collections, becoming its first director. Kuchumov was a member of the Investigation Commission for Valuables Looted by the Nazis (with Kuchumov’s assistance, over 12,000 exhibits were found and returned to museums). In 1956, he was appointed chief curator of Pavlovsk Palace Museum, and became one of the authors of the project of restoration of its interiors. A specialist in the 18th -19th centuries Russian material culture history, Kuchumov provided consulting support to the Hermitage, the State Museum of History, Tretyakov Gallery and other museums. He authored the following books and albums: Pavlovsk. The Palace and the Park (1976), The Decor of Russian Home Interior of the 19th Century (1977), Russian Arts and Crafts of the Late 18th - 19th Centuries (1981), etc. In 1986, he received the Lenin Prize. Kuchumov lived in Pushkin (Alexandrovsky Park, White Tower), Pavlovsk (6 Very Slutskoy Street), in 1983, returned to Pushkin (2 Shkolnaya Street). He was buried at the town cemetery of Pavlovsk.

References: Масси С. Павловск: Жизнь рус. дворца. Л., 1990. С. 225-245; Мудров Ю. В. Почетный гражданин Павловска // Мир музея. 1993. № 2. С. 69-70.

V. A. Belanina.

KVASOV Andrey Vasilyevich (circa 1718, St. Petersburg - after 1777), architect, master of Baroque. Brother of Alexey V. Kvasov. He studied at the Construction Office under the guidance of architect M.G. Zemtsov. He worked on the Catherine Palace and park pavilions (1744-48, reconstructed) in Tsarskoe Selo, A.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin's Palace (1745; reconstructed, see the Senate and Synod Building), created the park ensemble of A.G. Razumovsky's Mansion at Gostilitsy near St. Petersburg (1740-50s; partly preserved). It is believed that he was the author of the Holy Assumption Church at Sennaya Square. He lived at 54 Morskaya Street (the house is reconstructed). From 1748, he lived and worked in Ukraine.

V. G. Isachenko.

LENIN (real name Ulyanov) Vladimir Ilyich (1870-1924), political figure, statesman and writer. Upon graduating from the Simbirsk Gymnasium (1887), he entered the Faculty of Law of Kazan University; in the same year got involved in student protests and was expelled from the University. In 1891, he took an external lawyer degree at Petersburg University; in 1892-93, he assisted a lawyer in Samara, attended meetings of the People's Will, then of Marxist circles. After moving to St Petersburg (1893), he was engaged in workers' circles propaganda efforts, and was a founding member of the Petersburg League of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class (1895). In 1894-95, he lived at 7 Kazachy Lane, then in building 1, where he was arrested in December 1895. He was kept at the Preliminary Detention House; in the spring of 1897, he was exiled to the Enisey Province. At the end of his exile in 1900 he went abroad, took part in the publication of the newspaper Iskra and the journal Zarya. At the Second Congress of the Russian Social-Democratic Workers' Party (1903), he established and headed the Bolshevik faction. He was a member of the Central Committee of the Russian Social-Democratic Workers' Party starting November 1903. At the end of 1905, he returned to St Petersburg, edited the legal Bolshevik newspaper Novaya Zhizn. From December 1907, he moved abroad again. He returned to Petrograd on 3(16) April 1917, and was solemnly greeted at the Finland Railway Station. In April-June 1917, he lived at the flat of his sister and brother-in-law A. I. and M. T. Elizarov (48 Shirokaya Street, today Lenina Street), worked in the editorial office of the Pravda newspaper (2/32 Moika River Embankment), was part of the Central Committee and Petrograd Committee of Russian Social-Democratic Workers' Bolshevik Party, which settled in the Kschessinska Mansion in March 1917 without permission. Also upon his arrival in Petrograd, he proposed slogans for the transfer of power to the Soviets (peoples' councils), and prepared for a Socialist Revolution. After the failure of the Bolshevik declarations on 3-4 (16-17) July 1917, he went into hiding, living by Razliv Lake, near Sestroretsk and in Finland (July-September 1917). At the 16 (29) October 1917 meeting of the Central Committee of the Russian Social-Democratic Workers' Bolshevik Party, he urged an armed insurrection against the Provisional Government. Together with L. D. Trotsky, he led the October Revolution in Petrograd. At the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets he was elected Chairman of the Soviet of Peoples' Commissars. In November 1917 - March 1918, he lived and worked at Smolny. On 11 March 1918, he moved to Moscow along with all Soviet authorities. He came to Petrograd on 12-13 March 1919 for M. T. Elizarov's funeral, and in June of 1920 for the opening of the Second Congress of the Communist International. During the Civil War years, he was Chairman of the Soviet for the Defence of Workers and Peasant (from November 1919, the Soviet of Labour and Defence). At the insistence of his doctors, he lived near Moscow on the Gorky Estate from late 1922, and dictated his last articles and letters until March 1923; then, due to serious disease, he retired from political life. He died on 21 January 1924. On G. E. Zinoviev's initiative, Petrograd was renamed Leningrad on 26 January 1924 by a Decree of the Second Congress of Soviets of the USSR. Many enterprises, institutions, a square, an avenue, streets and lanes were named after Lenin; there are nearly 100 monuments and 120 memorial plaques erected in his honour. The Museum of V. I. Lenin operated in 1937-92.

References: Владимир Ильич Ленин: Биогр. хроника, 1870-1924. 052 ., 1970-1985. Т. 1-13; Бондаревская Т. П., Великанова А. Я., Суслова Ф. М. Ленин в Петербурге - Петрограде: Места жизни и деятельности в городе и окрестностях. Л., 1980; Волкогонов Д. А. Ленин: Ист. портр.: В 2 кн. М., 1994; Пейн Р. Ленин: Жизнь и смерть. М., 2003.

A. G. Kalmykov.

LEVINSON Evgeny Adolfovich (1894-1968, Leningrad), architect and artist, Associate of the Academy of Architecture of the USSR (from 1941), Doctor of Architecture (1946). He studied at Civil Engineers' Institute (1915-1916), and graduated from the Academy of Arts (1924-1927). In the early 1920s, he worked as a stage designer in Odessa. His architectural activity is mainly connected with Leningrad. He followed the norms of constructivism in his early works, such as the building of the preventorium (32 Elizarova Avenue, 1928-1930, together with L.V. Rudnev, I.I. Fomin et al.), residential houses at 55 Kamennoostrovsky Avenue (1929-1930, together with A.M. Sokolov) and 20 Pesochnaya Embankment (1930-36). The forms of the late constructivism can be seen in the first apartment house of Leningrad Soviet (13 Karpovka River Embankment; 1931-35, together with Fomin), which is characterized by the dynamics and sculptural expression of curved and right-angled dimensions, Leningrad Soviet Recreation Centre (42 Kamennoostrovsky Avenue; 1931-1938, together with V.O. Munz) and the House of Light Industry (44-46 Voznesensky Avenue; 1932-1935, together with Fomin) which has ornamental details of the facades a la Art Deco. Since the mid-1930s Levinson was involved in the modernization of the city's classical heritage, thus contributing to the establishment of his original Neoclassical style. The dominating point in the buildings of Nevsky District Soviet (163 Obukhovskoy Oborony Avenue, 1936-1939), buildings on Ivanovskaya Street (1937-1940), residential-houses at 8 Petrovskaya Embankment (1938-1940) as well as 145 and 147 Moskovsky Avenue (1938-1940, all of them built together with Fomin et al.) is constituted by the rows of high pylons which accentuate the monumental and large-scale character of the composition. In the 1940s, he took part in the building up of Magnitogorsk, built residential houses in Moscow as well as blocks of low buildings on Krupskoy Street in Leningrad. His post-war works consists of enhancing the retrospective character and ornamentation, such as the apartment house on 1/12 Pestelya Street (1947-1949), the Railway Station in Pushkin (1948-1950; Stalin Award of 1951), Avtovo Metro Station (1950-1955, all of them built together with A.A. Grushke). At that time Levinson paid special attention to the synthesis of arts. His turn to the integrating lapidary forms can be seen in the ensemble of Piskarevskoe Memorial Cemetery (1955-1960, together with A.V. Vasilyev, sculptors V.V. Isaeva, R.K. Taurit et al.). The last stage of his works is represented by neo-constructivist forms, revealed in his return to a strict functionality and laconicism of clear-cut three-dimensional compositions: Sovetskaya Hotel (43/1 Lermontovsky Avenue, 1963-1968), Nevsky Recreation Centre (32 Obukhovskoy Oborony Avenue, 1968-72) etc. Based on the methods of industrial house-building Levinson directed the development of residential blocks in Nevsky District. He also taught at the Leningrad Institute of Municipal Building - Leningrad Building Engineering Institute (1940-46), and was also in charge of a workshop in the Academy of Arts (1941-68; professor from 1947). He lived at 55 Kamennoostrovsky Avenue (1931-68; memorial plaque). He was buried at Serafimovskoe Cemetery.

References: Оль Г. А., Левинсон Е. Э. Евгений Левинсон. Л., 1976.

B. М. Kirikov.

LOMONOSOV Mikhail Vasilievich (1711-1765), scientist, poet, enlightener. He came from a prosperous family based by the White Sea. In 1731-35 he studied in Moscow, from 1736 in the Academic University of St. Petersburg, from autumn 1736 until 1741 he studied abroad. From 1742 he had been a junior scientific assistant for a physics class; from 1745 he was a professor (academician) of chemistry in the Petersburg Academy of Sciences. In 1746 was the first person to lecture on physics in Russian at the Academic University. In 1748 he created the first Russian chemical laboratory (it was located in the so-called Botanic Garden of Academy of Sciences, close to the house where Lomonosov lived, - between the First and the Second Lines of Vasilievsky Island; not preserved). In 1753 on the initiative of Lomonosov a stained glass factory was founded in Ust-Ruditsa (it operated until 1768, there is a memorial obelisk at its location). In 1758 Lomonosov opened a mosaic workshop in St. Petersburg, where the Battle of Poltava panel was made under his guidance (1762-64; today in the building of the Academy of Sciences) and a number of mosaic portraits (in 1763 Lomonosov was elected an honorary member of Academy of Arts). From 1757 Lomonosov was an advisor for the Academy of Sciences Chancery; in 1758 he was charged with supervision over the Geographic Department, Historians Assembly, Academic University and Academic Gymnasium. Lomonosov wrote his major philological works in St. Petersburg: Short Guide for Eloquence (1748) - a general course on theory of literature; Russian Grammar (1757); Introduction to the Use of Church Books for Russian Language (1758), in which the use of three styles of Russian was explained concerning Standard Russian and Russian literary genres. By motivating theoretically syllabo-tonic system of versification Lomonosov as a poet was the creator of the Russian ode (the first sample - ode on the capture of Khotin, 1739, published in 1751), mainly of religious and philosophic content (Evening Thoughts About the Grandeur of God on the occasion of the Great Pole Star, 1743, published in 1748); he wrote satires, poems and tragedies in verse as well. According to Lomonosov's intention the first Russian scientific literary journal, Monthly Writings for Use and Amusement (it was issued in St. Petersburg from1755 to 1764). In his historical works Lomonosov highly valued the activities of Peter the Great, emphasising the importance of the foundation of St. Petersburg as an important stage in acquiring access to the Baltic Sea. From 1757 he had been living in his own house on the right bank of Moika River (it was reconstructed in 1843-45; memorial plaque on the house 61 along Bolshaya Morskaya Street). He was buried at Lazarevskoe Cemetery of Alexander Nevsky Lavra. In 1915 Barachevskaya Street in Rybatskoe Village (today within the limits of the city) was renamed Lomonosovskaya Street (in 1987 it was abolished). In 1948 Oranienbaum was renamed Lomonosov, Chernyshev Bridge, Chernyshev Square and Chernyshev Lane were renamed into Bridge, Square and Street of Lomonosov, Lomonosovskaya metro station and some industrial companies (including Lomonosov Porcelain Plant) were named after Lomonosov. In 1949 the Lomonosov Museum was opened in the building of Kunstkammer, where the scientist had worked from 1741 (memorial plaque). A bust of Lomonosov was installed on Lomonosov Square (1892, sculptor P.P. Zabello, architect A.S. Lytkin), a statue at Universitetskaya Embankment (1986, sculptor B.A. Petrov, V.D. Sveshnikov, architect E.A. Tyakht, I.A. Shakhov).

References: Лихоткнн Г. А. Ломоносов в Петербурге. Л., 1981; Белявский М. Т. ...Все испытал и все проник. 2-е изд. М., 1986; Ломоносов: Краткий энциклопедич. словарь. СПб., 1999; Судьба мемориального наследия М. В. Ломоносова // Петербургская Академия наук в истории академий мира: Материалы междунар. конференции. СПб., 1999. Т. 3.

O. N. Ansberg.

LUKOMSKY Georgy Kreskentievich (1884-1952) was a graphic artist, aquarellist, art critic, art historian. In 1900, he studied at the painting classes and drawing under Y. S. Goldblatt in St. Petersburg. In 1901-03, he studied at the Kazan School of Arts, in 1903-15 (intermittently), he was a student of the Department of Architecture of the Academy of Arts. Artistic tastes and interests of Lukomsky developed under the strong influence of the artists of the World of Art. In 1904-14, Lukomsky travelled in Europe and old Russian cities, he created a series of graphic and water-colour paintings having proved himself as a master of cityscapes. From 1909, he participated in art exhibitions in Russia and abroad. From 1908, he published articles about architecture, painting and applied art in the journals Starye Gody, Zodchy, Apollon etc.; he is the author of the books Old St. Petersburg (1916), Present-Day Petrograd (1917; both were republished in 2002 with commentaries by B. M. Kirikov) etc. In 1917, he was in charge of restoration work in Tsarskoe Selo. He lived at 5 Twenty-Second Line of Vasilievsky Island in St. Petersburg. He left for Kiev in 1918. He emigrated in 1921 and lived in Berlin. He lived in Paris from 1925, and Great Britain from 1940. He published the following books abroad: Andrea Palladio: Life and Creative Works (1927), History of the Russian Painting 1840-1940 (1945) etc. Graphic works by Lukomsky were purchased by many museums of Europe.

References: Кобак А. В., Северюхин Д. Я. Г. К. Лукомский: очерк жизни и творчества//Невский архив. Ист.-краевед. сб. СПб., 2003. [Вып.] 6. С. 528-554; Векслер А. Ф. Георгий Крескентьевич Лукомский // Топонимич. журн. 2002. № 1/2. С. 41-44.

A. F. Veksler.

MAMIN-SIBIRYAK (real name Mamin) Dmitry Narkisovich (1852-1912, St. Petersburg), writer. From 1872 lived in St. Petersburg; in 1872-76 studied at Veterinary Faculty of the Moscow Medical Surgical Academy, in 1876-77 - at the Faculty of Law of Petersburg University (didn't graduate). In 1877-91 lived in the Urals; from 1891 - in St. Petersburg (8 Saperny Lane; memorial plaque) and Tsarskoe Selo. Mamin-Sibiryak's social novels depicting the life of the industrial Ural (Privalov's Millions, Mountain Nest, Three Ends, Gold, Bread) earned him literary fame. He was the author of the novels about the life of intellectuals, stories and fairy-tales for children (Alenushka's fairy-tales). From the 1890s his works were mainly published in Petersburg journals (Otechestvennye zapiski, Delo, Mir Bozhy, Russkoe Bogatstvo, Severny Vestnik). The novel A Few Strokes of Pepko's Life and Along the New Way deal with problems young men, who have come to the capital from the provinces, face. Buried at Nikolskoe Cemetery of Alexander Nevsky Lavra; in 1932 his remains and memorial were moved to Literatorskie Mostki. The Central Library of the town of Pushkin was named after Mamin-Sibiryak.

References: Дергачев И. А. Д. Н. Мамин-Сибиряк: Личность и творчество. 2-е изд., доп. Свердловск, 1981; Бунатян Г. Г. Город муз: Лит. памят. места г. Пушкина. СПб., 2001. С. 208-220.

A. B. Muratov.

MARIA ALEXANDROVNA (1824-1880, St. Petersburg), Empress (from 1856). Nee Maximiliane Wilhelmine Auguste Sophie, Princess of Hesse-Darmstadt. Emperor Alexander II's wife (from 1841). In 1844-62, she was patroness of the Womens' Patriotic Society Vyborgskaya School. From 1860, she became the main patron of the Empress Maria's Department of Institutions. She opened Women's High Schools and Women's Eparchial Schools for many estates. She contributed to the creation of barrack infirmaries at Rozhdestvenskaya City Hospital (1871; 4 Suvorovsky Avenue), which later bore her name, and a school for medical assistants attached to the hospital (1872). She assisted the establishment of the Russian Society for the Red Cross. She supported her husband in carrying out the Great Reforms of the 1860-70s, and from the mid-1860s stopped playing any independent political role. In 1876-77, she voiced support for the Slavs in the Balkans. She owned Alexandria near Peterhof. She was buried at the SS. Peter&Paul Cathedral.

References: Бертенсон И. В. Императрица Мария Александровна в ее заботах о деятельности Российского общества Красного Креста // Рус. старина. 1892. Т. 73, янв. С. 1-12.

Y. A. Kuzmin.

MENELAS Adam Adamovich (1753-1831, Tsarskoe Selo), architect, landscape designer, representative of the late Neoclassicism. Native of Scotland. From 1785, resided in Russia, worked as a mason in the workshop of N.A. Lvov in Torzhok and Mogilev. From 1800, was employed as an architect by the Counts Razumovsky, from 1813, Counts Stroganov. In 1813-31, was a member of the Building Committee of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. From the early 1810s, Menelas worked in Tsarskoe Selo, where he laid out Alexandrovsky park and erected the pavilions there: the Arsenal (1819-34), the Chapel (1825-28) and the White Tower (1821-27), whose outlook is marked by the English Neo-Gothic architecture influence. In Peterhof, Menelas created the landscape park Alexandria, with a small Palace Cottage in the centre (1826-29), also representative of the English style (its decoration was completed by prominent masters). He erected the Farm Palace on the park premises (1828-30; later re-built). The cast iron gates of Ekaterininsky and Alexandrovsky parks in Tsarskoe Selo are done in the Empire style. The massive Kusminsky (Egyptian) Gates (1829-32) at the gateway of St. Petersburg, adorned with reliefs by V.I. Demut-Malinovsky are especially expressive. Menelas' last work is the Church of St. Alexander Nevsky in Alexandria, in Neo-Gothic style (1831-34; project of the German architect K. Schinkel, with a contribution of I.I. Charlemagne, sculptor Demut-Malinovsky).

Reference: Кузнецов С. О. Адам Менелас // Зодчие Санкт-Петербурга, ХIХ - начало ХХ века. СПб., 1998. С. 80-89.

V. V. Antonov.

MONIGHETTI Ippolit Antonovich (1819-1878, St. Petersburg), architect, aquarellist, teacher, associate academy member (1847), professor (1858), court architect (1860). Adherent of Eclecticism, predominantly of the "second Baroque", interior designer and decorator. Monighetti is a descendent of a Russified family of Italian merchants. Graduated from the Stroganov Academy in Moscow (1835) and the Academy of Fine Arts (1839). A student of A.P. Brullov. In 1839-47, lived in Europe. Since 1848, was appointed architect of the Ministry of the Imperial Court and Principalities; worked in Tsarskoe Selo, where he erected the stylized Turkish Bath Pavilion in the park (1850-52), in the town itself, he built over 30 apartment houses (among those remaining is the mansion and summer cottage of Princess Z.I. Yusupova, 1856-59). He masterfully employed various historical styles. In the 1850s-60s he designed the interiors of Yusupov Palace on the Moika River, Mariinsky Palace, Anichkov Palace, Stroganov Mansion in St. Petersburg and of the Catherine Palace in Tsarskoe Selo. In the so-called second Baroque he built Dyleev's mansion (1859, 155 Obvodny Canal Embankment), Zerebtsova's apartment house (1852-54, 9 Gorokhovaya Street), in early Neoclassicism, M.V. Vorontsova's Palace. (1856-57, 106 Moika River Embankment). Engaged in designing household goods. Since 1868, lived in his own mansion in Tsarskoe Selo (has not survived). Buried at the Shuvalovskoe Cemetery.

Reference: Листов В. Н. Ипполит Монигетти. Л., 1976; Зодчие Санкт-Петербурга, XIX - начало ХХ века. СПб., 1998. С. 1013-1014.

V. V. Antonov.

NARTOV Andrey Konstantinovich (1693-1756, St. Petersburg), mechanic. Worked at the Moscow Mint for the artillery department. In 1712, he settled in St. Petersburg, becoming Tsar Peter the Great's private lathe operator. Upon the Tsar's death in 1725, Nartov, as well as his turnery, came under the supervision of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. He invented and built a number of original lathes, also coming up with new cannon foundries, machines for bore drilling, and some original ignition devices. The lathes and machines that Nartov invented are kept at the State Hermitage, the Military and Historical Museum of Artillery, the Sappers and Signal Troops, and the Summer Palace of Peter the Great; his manuscript treatise, entitled Theatrum Machinorum, is stored at the National Russian Library. He was buried by the Holy Annunciation Church on Vasilievsky Island, and reburied at the Necropolis of the 18th Century in the 1930s.

References: Данилевский В. В. Нартов и "Ясное зрелище машин". М.; Л., 1958; Гизе М. Э. Нартов в Петербурге. Л., 1988.

V. V. Cheparukhin.

NICHOLAS I (1796, Tsarskoe Selo - 1855, St. Petersburg), Emperor (from 1825). Emperor Pavel I and Empress Maria Fedorovna's third son. Married the Princess of Prussia (1817), who took the name of Alexandra Fedorovna. From 1796, he was Lieutenant General, and from 1817, Inspector General of Engineering. He commanded a guard brigade, and then, from 3 March 1825, commanded the second Guard Infantry Division. In 1823, he was named Crown Prince in declaration by Alexander I, who died before it was made public. After Alexander I's death, Nicholas I could not proclaim himself Emperor immediately on account of the ambiguity surrounding the interregnum. Members of secret societies used the opportunity to attempt an armed uprising on the day of Nicholas I's enthronement (see the Decembrists' Rebellion, 14 December, 1825), which was suppressed. Nicholas I personally commanded the army summoned against the insurgents, and later supervised the investigation and sentencing of the Decembrists. He took interest in engineering and architecture, ratifying plans for the city's development, fortresses, individual buildings, including those of St. Petersburg, and often adjusted them personally. St. Isaac's Cathedral in St. Petersburg was completed during Nicholas I's reign, and the city was beautified by many large-scale buildings and structures. Within Russia, Nicholas I reinforced central state control, suppressed even the mildest uprising or oppositional attitude, and militarised all aspects of state life, creating a Secret Political Police (see the Third Section) and the Gendarmerie. Some of Nicholas I closest associates were Grand Prince Mikhail Pavlovich, the Emperor's brother, Count A.Kh. Benckendorff, Prince A.F. Orlov, Count M.M. Speransky, Count P.D. Kiselev, Count P.A. Kleinmichel. Before taking the crown he lived at Anichkov Palace, presented to him by Emperor Alexander I in 1817, and to which he returned after the fire at the Winter Palace in 1837. During summertime, he lived in the Alexandrovsky Palace at Tsarskoe Selo. He ordered the Alexandria Palace and Park, named after his wife, to be created on the territory of the former Menagerie (Peterhof), which was presented to him. After taking the crown, he lived at the Winter Palace. He also owned Gatchina. He was buried at the SS. Peter&Paul Cathedral. A monument to Nicholas I erected on St. Isaac's Square in 1859.

References: Шеманский А. В., Гейченко С. С. Кризис самодержавия: Петергофский Коттедж Николая I. 4-е изд. М.; Л., 1932; Мироненко С. В. Николай I // Романовы: Ист. портреты. М., 1997. Кн. 2. С. 331-403; Выскочков Л.В. Николай I. М., 2003.

Y. A. Kuzmin.

Peter I the Great (1672–1725, SPb), the Tsar (from 1682), the Emperor (from 1721). He was a son of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich in the second marriage (to N. К. Naryshkina). Peter I carried out the military reform (the Regular Army and Navy were created), the reform of the State administration, the tax reform ( taxation of a person was established, serfdom was strengthen). Peter I aspired to introduce the Western European civilization into Russia, he visited Europe with the Great Embassy in 1697-1698; he invited foreign specialists to work in Russia. Peter I was interested in sciences and advanced technology of his time, the Academy of Sciences was opened on Peter's initiative (in 1724). The Russian every day life was changed dramatically by Peter's reforms that were realized by means of harsh methods. During 1700-1721 Peter I led his army in the Northen War with Sweden, after that Russia returned the banks of the Neva River, the Baltic States, Sourth -East part of Finland (Vyborg). Peter I was buried in the Peter and Paul Cathedral in Saint Petersburg. In 1703 Peter I founded the new city of Saint Petersburg in the delta of the Neva River. Peter I took part in the working out the city development plans, he planned to create a city-port, like Venice and Amsterdam, with many rivers and canals used for sailing and moving citizens. Under Peter I rule the first canals were built: Kronwerk tributary around the Peter and Paul Fortress (1706), the Kryukov canal between the Neva River and the Moika River (1717-19), the Winter Ditch (1718), the Swan Canal (1716), the Red Canal between the Moika and the Neva, later it was filled with earth (1711), the Ligovsky Canal, later it was filled with earth , canals on Vasilyevsky Island , the Admiralty Canal (1711-20). In 1718 the constructing of the Ladoga Canal was began along the South shore of Ladoga Lake from the Volkhov River to the Neva ( later the canal was named after Peter the Great, now it is named as the Old-Ladoga Canal) for the safe sailing of the cargo boats to Saint Petersburg. (Peter I inspected constructing the canal in the autumn of 1724). Fountains were constructed in the Summer Gardens and Peterhof (v. The Peterhof fountain system). Gutters strengthen by planks were used in streets of Saint Peresburg, the undeground wooden pipes were also used as drainage system. The brick manifold of the first quarter of the 18th cent., which was used as drainage system of adjacent territory, was found by archeologists during the archeological dig at the Spit of Vasilyevsky Island near the Twelve Collegiums Building during 2000-2002. Directives concerning the ban on polluting rivers and canals of Saint Peresburg (making rubbish dumps, sanding logs on banks of rivers, etc), concerning the navigation were issured under Peter I's rule. In 1718 responsibilities of the police were to observe the condition of gutters which conducted the water into rivers. Peter I organized the first measures for the defence of Saint Petersburg against floods. In 1715 Peter I ordered to measure regularly the water level in the Neva River, and in 1721 the supervision of technicians on the strenghtening of banks of the Big Neva River was organized. The first wooden embankments were built in the Petrogradsky Island (its name was Gorodskoy during the first third of the 18th cent. ) and in the left bank of the Neva River between the Main Admiralty and the Summer Gardens. The stone embankments were built near the Winter Ditch and on the territory of the Summer Gardens in 1718-1723.